Civil war, was elected president of the Revolutionary Coun.... soviet parti

By early 1980 several regional groups, collectively known as (from Arabic mujahidun , those who engage in jihad), had united inside Afghanistan, or across the border in Peshawar, Pakistan, to resist the Soviet invaders and the Soviet-backed Afghan army. Pakistan's exclusion of secular groups from any role in the struggle fit the ideological temper of the military regime of which played heavily on Islamic symbols for legitimacybut also suited Pakistan's determination that no aid would go to Afghan nationalists who might harbour long-standing territorial designs on Pakistan. (A young Saudi Arabian, , was among them, and, while he saw little military action, his personal wealth enabled him to fund high-profile mujahideen activities and gain a widely favourable reputation among his colleagues.) The bulk of the fighting was undertaken by small units that crossed into Afghanistan from Pakistan and engaged mostly in brief hit-and-run operations. Among the other Peshawar-based parti! es were Abd al-Rasul Sayyaf's militant Islamic Union for the Liberation of Afghanistan (Etti?ad-e Eslami Bara-ye Azad-e Afghanistan), which derived its support largely from foreign Islamic groups, and three parties headed by traditional religious leaders, including the most pragmatic of the mujahideen parties, the National Islamic Front (Ma?az-e Melli-ye Eslami), led by Ahmad Gailani. But the party receiving the most material support from the ISI was the extremist and virulently anti-American Islamic Party (?ezb-e Eslami; one of two parties by that name) loyal to Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. Other than the Afghan fighters themselves, few had faith that the mujahideen could prevail in a military conflict with the Soviet Union. After years of bedevilment by the Soviet military's use of helicopter gunships and jet bombers, the mujahideen's prospects improved greatly toward the end of 1986 when they began to receive more and better weapons from the outside worldparticularly from the Un! ited States, the United Kingdom, and Chinavia Pakistan, the mo! st important of these being shoulder-fired ground-to-air missiles. Despite renewals of the official cease-fire, Afghan resistance to the Soviet presence continued, and the effects of the war were felt in neighbouring countries: Afghan refugees in Pakistan and Iran numbered more than five million. During the 1980s, talks between the foreign ministers of Afghanistan and Pakistan were held in Geneva under auspices, the primary stumbling blocks being the timetable for the withdrawal of Soviet troops and the cessation of arms supplies to the mujahideen. Soviet General Secretary subsequently carried out an earlier promise to begin withdrawing Soviet troops in May of that year; troops began leaving as scheduled, and the last Soviet soldier left Afghanistan in February 1989. The mujahideen formed an interim government in Pakistan, steadfastly resisting Najibullah's reconciliation efforts, and disunity among the mujahideen parties contributed to their inability to dislodge the commu! nist government. soviet parti

Masks have been used almost universally to represent characters in . Theatrical performances are a visual literat.... mask drama

Moreover, their use made it possible for the Greek actorswho were limited by convention to three speakers for each tragedyto impersonate a number of different characters during the play simply by changing masks and costumes. Details from frescoes, mosaics, vase paintings, and fragments of stone sculpture that have survived to the present day provide most of what is known of the appearance of these ancient theatrical masks. Masks used in connection with present-day carnivals and Mardi Gras and those of folk demons and characters still used by central European peasants, such as the Perchten masks of Alpine Austria, are most likely the inheritors of the tradition of medieval masks. Sometimes the masking was grotesque and fanciful, but generally a heavy leather mask, full or half face, disguised the commedia player. Excellent pictorial records of both commedia costumes and masks exist; some sketches show the characters of Arlecchino and Colombina wearing black masks covering mer! ely the eyes, from which the later masquerade mask is certainly a development. Except for vestiges of the commedia in the form of puppet and marionette shows, the drama of masks all but disappeared in Western theatre during the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th centuries. In modern revivals of ancient Greek plays, masks have occasionally been employed, and such highly symbolic plays as Die versunkene Glocke ( The Sunken Bell ; 1897) by the German Gerhart Hauptmann (18621946) and dramatizations of Alice in Wonderland have required masks for the performers of grotesque or animal figures. In 1926 theatregoers in the United States witnessed a memorable use of masks in The Great God Brown by the American dramatist (18881953), wherein actors wore masks of their own faces to indicate changes in the internal and external lives of their characters. The mask, however, unquestionably lost its importance as a theatrical convention in the 20th century, and its appearance in modern ! plays is unusual. In , sacred dramas are performed by masked l! ay actors. Masks, usually made of papier-m are employed in the religious or admonitory drama of China; but for the greater part the actors in popular or secular drama make up their faces with cosmetics and paint to resemble masks, as do the kabuki actors in Japan. The highly didactic sacred drama of China is performed with the actors wearing fanciful and grotesque masks. The use of theatrical masks in Java is exceptional, since masks, being forbidden under the prohibition of images, are practically unknown in the Islamic world. Masks also have exerted a decided influence on modern art movements, especially in the first decades of the 20th century, when painters in France and Germany found a source of inspiration in the tribal masks of Africa and western . mask drama

This is a combination of American and English classifications .... wing antenna

Order Adults small to medium; head prognathous, elongated, tapering posteriorly; biting mouthparts; antennae filiform; prothorax elongated, cylindrical; 2 pairs of similar elongated wings, held rooflike over abdomen in repose; female with long, slender ovipositor. Adult wing expanse 3079 mm; head small, closely set on prothorax; antennae long, filiform; costal areas of wings not broad. Adults small to large; antennae filiform or moniliform (beadlike); posterior wings shorter than anterior; elongated larvae with jaws straight or curved. Family Adults medium to large; head wider than long; antennae filiform, short; 3 ocelli; wings often with brown markings; claws with many teeth. ( , stinkflies) Adults small to medium, yellowish, green, or gray, sometimes with markings; wing expanse 3165 mm; head small, antennae long, filiform; iridescent golden eyes. Small, slender; antennae long, filiform; wings hairy, sometimes with seedlike scales; larvae thysanuriform, with short, straigh! t jaws. Family Adults small to large; wing expanse 1055 mm; antennae short; prothorax greatly elongated; wings narrow; forelegs predatory. Larvae have 2 forms; 1st stage with squarish head; antennae with 35 joints; short, straight jaws; labial palpi with 3 or 7 joints; legs with 2 claws and empodium; active hunters; in presence of food reserves, larvae become white, parasitic grubs with small heads and atrophied legs. Larval antennae long, filiform; jaws incurved; mandibles with or without internal teeth; with or without an elongated neck formed by anterior portion of prothorax; if present, neck may be thin, cylindrical, 3 times length of head; remainder of thorax and abdomen broad, flattened; legs long, with 2 curved claws, empodium absent; free-living in dust, some cave-dwelling. Family Adults large, dragonfly-like species, 4050 mm in length; some rapid fliers; antennae long, slender, strongly clavate distally; eyes large, divided; head with long, fine hairs. Adult wing e! xpanse 310 mm; antennae long, filiform; wings similar or poste! rior wings reduced; wing venation reduced. wing antenna

Sturgeons are related to the and perhaps to the . They ha.... river sea

Sturgeons are found in greatest abundance in the rivers of southern Russia and Ukraine and in the freshwaters of North America. guldenstadtii is one of the most valuable species inhabiting the rivers of Russia and occurs eastward to Lake Baikal. It is about the same size as the common sturgeon and is found particularly in the rivers feeding the Black and Caspian seas. ruthenus ), inhabits the Black and Caspian seas and is a valuable food fish about 0.9 m long. stellatus occurs in the rivers of the Black and Caspian seas and of the Sea of Azov. The beluga, or ( Huso huso, or Acipenser huso ), inhabits the Caspian and Black seas and the Sea of Azov. A large sturgeon, it reaches a length of 7.5 m and a weight of 1,300 kg (2,900 pounds), but its flesh and caviar are less valuable than those of smaller species. fulvescens ) of North America occurs in the Mississippi River valley, Great Lakes, and Canada and may weigh more than 90 kg (200 pounds). transmontanus ) occurs on the Pac! ific coast and is the largest of the North American sturgeons, weighing up to 820 kg (1,800 pounds). river sea

Underwater weapons range from the simple hand spear to guns capable of penetrat.... gun propel

Underwater weapons range from the simple hand spear to guns capable of penetrating the largest fish. In the mid-1930s, Alec Kramarenko patented an underwater gun in which the spear was propelled by a compressed spring. Shortly after, there appeared a spring-propulsion-type gun invented by a Frenchman, Maxime Forlot, and the popular spear gun designed by his compatriot Georges Beuchat and propelled by a rubber elastic band. Other guns were designed that used gunpowder, carbon dioxide, or compressed air to propel the spear; one of the latter type, invented in 1956 by Juan Vilarrubis of Spain, became popular because of its accuracy, power, and simplicity of operation. Spearfishing guns often have a line attached to the shaft, making retrieval easier. gun propel

discoloration of sea caused by (phylum Protozoa), during periodic blooms (or popu.... green water

Up to 50,000,000 individuals per litre (quart) of the species brevis caused a red tide off the Florida coast in 1947 and turned the water from green to yellow to amber; thousands of fishes died. green water

Plesiosaurus , an early plesiosaur, was about 4.5 metres (15 feet) long, with a broad, flat body and a relatively short tai.... head neck

Plesiosaurus , an early plesiosaur, was about 4.5 metres (15 feet) long, with a broad, flat body and a relatively short tail. The neck was long and flexible, and the animal may have fed by swinging its head from side to side through schools of fish, capturing prey by using the long, sharp teeth present in the jaws. Early in their evolutionary history, the plesiosaurs split into two main lineages: the pliosaurs, in which the neck was short and the head elongated; and the plesiosaurids, in which the head remained relatively small and the neck assumed snakelike proportions and became very flexible. Elasmosaurus , a plesiosaurid, had as many as 76 vertebrae in its neck alone and reached a length of about 13 metres, fully half of which consisted of the head and neck. head neck

Most species of piranha never grow larger than 60 cm (2 feet) long. Colours vary from silvery with o.... piranha speci

Found from northern Argentina to Colombia, piranhas are most diverse in the Amazon River, where 20 different species are found. The most infamous is the red-bellied piranha ( Serrasalmus nattereri ), with the strongest jaws and sharpest teeth of all. Generally a group of red-bellied piranhas spreads out to look for prey. Most species of piranhas, however, never kill large animals, and piranha attacks on people are rare. Some 12 species called wimple piranhas (genus Catoprion ) survive solely on morsels nipped from the fins and scales of other fishes, which then swim free to heal completely. piranha speci

Oxygen was discovered about 1772 by a Swedish chemist, Carl .... oxygen atmospher

Occurrence, properties, and uses The proportion of oxygen by volume in the atmosphere is 21 percent, by weight in seawater 89 percent, and in the Earth's crust 46.6 percent. (Certain recent figures suggest an even higher percentage of oxygen in seawater and in the Earth's crust.) During respiration, animals and some bacteria take oxygen from the atmosphere and return to it carbon dioxide, whereas by photosynthesis, green plants assimilate carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight and evolve free oxygen. Gaseous oxygen on Earth and in the lower atmosphere consists almost entirely of molecules of two atoms, O . Commercial oxygen or oxygen-enriched air has replaced ordinary air in steelmaking and other metallurgical processes and in the chemical industry for the manufacture of such oxidation-controlled chemicals as acetylene, ethylene oxide, and methanol. Medical applications of oxygen include use in oxygen tents, inhalators, and pediatric incubators. oxygen atmospher

The giant otter shrew ( Potamogale velox ) has the body form, fur texture, and coloration of a river but is smaller. It .... shrew otter

The giant otter shrew ( Potamogale velox ) has the body form, fur texture, and coloration of a river but is smaller. More shrewlike in appearance are the two dwarf species (genus Micropotamogale ), the Ruwenzori otter shrew ( M. The feet are webbed in the Ruwenzori otter shrew but unwebbed in the other two species. The giant and Ruwenzori otter shrews have brown upperparts and white or yellowish underparts; the Nimba shrew is uniformly brownish gray. The giant otter shrew has a vertically flat, finely furred tail; the Ruwenzori's is round with stiff hairs forming keels on the upper and lower surfaces; and that of the Nimba otter shrew is simply round. Giant water shrews give birth to one or two offspring; dwarf water shrews produce one to four. The giant otter shrew is found in fast-flowing mountain streams, large, fast rivers, sluggish coastal streams, and swamps. shrew otter

The moonrat is found on the (south of 12� N latitude), the Ind.... moonrat style:

The moonrat is found on the (south of 12 N latitude), the Indonesian islands of and , and the island of , where it inhabits lowland rainforests, mangrove forests, and sometimes rubber plantations adjacent to rainforests. Using their teeth and long snout, moonrats scratch and probe in rotten trunks and leaf litter seeking earthworms and , which are the primary components of their diet; sometimes snails, crabs, small vertebrates, and fruit are also eaten. Fish have not been found in the stomachs of wild moonrats, but in captivity individuals have readily caught and eaten small fish. Moonrats weigh up to 1.4 kg (3 pounds), with a body 26 to 45 cm (10.2 to 17.7 inches) long and a shorter tail (17 to 29 cm). MLA style: "moonrat ( Echinosorex gymnura ) ." APA style: moonrat ( Echinosorex gymnura ) . style: "moonrat ( Echinosorex gymnura ) ." moonrat style:

In North Africa in 1954�55, excavations at Tighenif (Ternifine), east of , Algeria, yi.... year h.

In North Africa in 195455, excavations at Tighenif (Ternifine), east of , Algeria, yielded remains dating to approximately 700,000 years ago whose nearest affinities seemed to be with the Chinese form of H. This fossil, catalogued as OH 9, was excavated by and is probably about 1.2 million years old. Olduvai Gorge has since yielded additional cranial remains, jaws, and limb bones of H. The fossils recovered there may be about 1.7 million years old, based on radiometric dating of the associated volcanic material. erectus fossils discovered in Africa. year h.

The brown fish owl ( K. zeylonensis ) ranges from the eastern Mediterranean to Taiwan an.... style: "fish

MLA style: "fish owl." APA style: fish owl. style: "fish owl." style: "fish

On the southeastern side of the depression is al-Fayyum, the capital of the mu?afa?ah, formerly Madinat .... squar al-fayyum

On the southeastern side of the depression is al-Fayyum, the capital of the mu?afa?ah, formerly Madinat al-Fayyum (City of the Fayyum). The present in the depression is sustained by a partial diversion of the Nile into the Yusuf (Ibrahimiyah) Canal, which follows the ancient channel of the Nile into the Fayyum, branching out to provide irrigation water. The brackish lake, occupying 85 square miles (220 square km), has been successfully stocked with saltwater fish, enabling a commercial-fishing industry to develop. Ptolemy II (285246 ) reduced the level of the lake to its present level, reclaiming much agricultural land. Al-Fayyum mu?afa?ah has an area of 705 square miles (1,827 square km). With the linking of al-Fayyum to the Nile valley by railroad (1874), the governorate's isolation was reduced and the way opened for development of the rich soils deposited by the Nile. The region has many ancient sites, including Shedet (later Crocodilopolis), chief centre for worship of t! he crocodile-god Sebek, near which al-Fayyum town now lies. A branch railway off the CairoAswan line serves the governorate, and narrow-gauge railways radiate from the capital into the countryside. squar al-fayyum

It is traversed east�west by the Al-Isma?iliyah Canal, formerly called the Sweet Water Canal, built 1858�63 from the .... canal, suez

It is traversed eastwest by the Al-Isma?iliyah Canal, formerly called the Sweet Water Canal, built 185863 from the Bulaq quarter of Cairo on the Nile to the city of Ismailia on Lake At-Timsa? A branch, commencing just west of the city, runs south along the waterway to Suez city. Poor, sandy soils have hindered agricultural development on the Suez Canal branch. Ancient ruins have been discovered at Tall al-Maskhutah, about 10 miles (16 km) west of Ismailia on the Al-Isma?iliyah Canal. The canal itself follows the course of an ancient Red SeaNile canal, first built by the Saite pharaoh Necho II (610595 ).

Hu-lun Lake has varied considerably in area according to variations in the.... lake river.

At one time it was part of a large lake that included , a somewhat smaller lake situated in the south of the Hu-lun-pei-erh Plain, which drains into Hu-lun Lake via the Orxon River. It is comparatively shallow and is joined by a seasonal channel to the Hai-la-erh River, which flows into the Argun River. For much of the year, however, it is undrained, and occasionally, when its level is very low, there is a reverse flow of waters from the Hai-la-erh River into the lake. During the six months of bitter winter cold, most of the fish in Hu-lun Lake migrate up the Orxon River to Pei-erh Lake. lake river.

The term was popularized through works of the 16th-century Swiss alchemist in which gnomes were described as cap.... move earth

The term was popularized through works of the 16th-century Swiss alchemist in which gnomes were described as capable of moving through solid earth as fish move through water. APA style: gnome. move earth

Oil and water are pressed from cooked fish during the manufacture of fish .... fish oil

Oil and water are pressed from cooked fish during the manufacture of fish meal and are separated by centrifuge. Fish liver oils (such as cod-liver oil) were once an important source of vitamins A and D, which are now produced synthetically at lower cost. APA style: fish oil.

On the southeastern side of the depression is al-Fayyum, the capital of the mu?afa?ah, formerly Mad.... squar al-fayyum

On the southeastern side of the depression is al-Fayyum, the capital of the mu?afa?ah, formerly Madinat al-Fayyum (City of the Fayyum). The present in the depression is sustained by a partial diversion of the Nile into the Yusuf (Ibrahimiyah) Canal, which follows the ancient channel of the Nile into the Fayyum, branching out to provide irrigation water. The brackish lake, occupying 85 square miles (220 square km), has been successfully stocked with saltwater fish, enabling a commercial-fishing industry to develop. Ptolemy II (285246 ) reduced the level of the lake to its present level, reclaiming much agricultural land. Al-Fayyum mu?afa?ah has an area of 705 square miles (1,827 square km). With the linking of al-Fayyum to the Nile valley by railroad (1874), the governorate's isolation was reduced and the way opened for development of the rich soils deposited by the Nile. The region has many ancient sites, including Shedet (later Crocodilopolis), chief centre for worship of t! he crocodile-god Sebek, near which al-Fayyum town now lies. A branch railway off the CairoAswan line serves the governorate, and narrow-gauge railways radiate from the capital into the countryside.

The narrow, floating leaves of fanwort are about 5 to 20 mm ( inch) long. A slimy leafstalk.... ( inch)

The narrow, floating leaves of fanwort are about 5 to 20 mm ( inch) long. The pale-yellow or white flowers are about 5.5 mm to 1 cm ( inch) long. APA style: fanwort.

There are numerous species of electric ray; most inhabit shallow water, but some ( Benthobatis ) live a.... electr style:

Slow-moving bottom dwellers, electric rays feed on fishes and invertebrates. The electric organs, composed of modified muscle tissue, are in the disk, one on each side of the head. MLA style: "electric ray." APA style: electric ray.fish links

The egg, like the male gamete, bears only a single (haploid) set of chr.... egg plant

The plant egg is never so disproportionately large, because the developing sporophyte embryo is nourished until self-supporting by the plant on which it is formed (in liverworts, mosses, and ferns by the gametophyte; in seed plants by the sporophyte on which the gametophyte is parasitic). Insect eggs, for example, are covered by a thick, hard chorion, and the amphibian egg is surrounded by a jelly layer. The bird egg includes the vitelline membrane, the white of the egg, two egg shell membranes, and the outermost membrane, the shell. The eggs of most invertebrates, fish, and amphibians must be fertilized a few minutes after they are shed into the water; an exception is sea urchin eggs, which are viable for about 40 hours after their release. Most other animal eggs have life spans similar to that of the human egg i.e.fish links

The Dniester and its tributaries drain a long, narrow ba.... dniester cubic

The Dniester and its tributaries drain a long, narrow basin that is about 28,000 square miles (72,000 square km) in area but is nowhere more than about 6070 miles (100110 km) wide. The river's basin is bounded on the north by the Volyn-Podilsk Upland and on the south of the river's upper course by the Carpathian Mountains. The estuary of the Dniester is formed by the incursion of the sea into the lower Dniester River valley, forming a shallow basin that is separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land. The river's average discharge is about 10,000 cubic feet (300 cubic m) per second, but it has been known to reach 250,000 cubic feet (7,100 cubic m) per second or more at times of flood. Although the basin of the Dniester is densely populated, there are no large towns along the river itself. The Dniester is navigable for about 750 miles (1,200 km) from its mouth; shipping lines run from Soroca to Dubasari (both in Moldova) and from Dubasari to the sea.

( Salmo clarki ), black-spotted game fish, family Salmonidae, of western North America named for the bright-red strea.... reenter fresh

These, like the oceanic forms of other species, are called sea trout and may not reenter fresh water for several years.

any fish of the family Apogonidae (order Perciformes), a group including about 200 specie.... larg fins,

Cardinal fishes range from 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8 inches) in length and are characterized by two dorsal fins, a large mouth, large eyes, and large scales.

The interior of what would become the Cape Colony had long .... cape coloni

The settlement at Table Bay became , whose purpose was to supply fresh food and water to Dutch trading ships rounding the Cape of Good Hope on their voyages to and from the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). The growing volume of shipping around the cape and the consequent demand for livestock provided the incentive for the spread of colonial sheep farmers northeastward beyond the Roggeveldberg and Hantamsberg and eastward through the plateau region of the Karoo until, by 1779, they were in contact with Bantu-speaking Xhosa peoples along the Great Fish River. The British returned the cape to the Dutch in 1803 but occupied it again in 1806, and, at the in 1814, the Dutch permanently ceded the Cape settlement to Britain, which thenceforth ruled the area as the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. The Afrikaners resented this policy and feared Britain's attempts to Anglicize the Cape Colony at their expense. The Cape Colony repeatedly defeated the Xhosa people in the Cape Frontier ! Wars and gradually annexed their territories. These annexations had by 1894 advanced the frontier of the Cape Colony eastward to the Mtamvuna River, the southwestern border of the colony of . This in turn stimulated a rush of British immigrants, an influx of foreign capital, and the extension of railroads northward from Cape Town and other coastal cities far into the interior; in 187384 the small Cape TownWellington railway was extended more than 600 miles (1,000 km) inland to Kimberley. As prime minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896, tried to cement British-Afrikaner cooperation in a possible union of southern Africa's four territories, but this was opposed by the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, which lost their independence in the South African War (18991902) against Britain. In 1910 the Cape Colony joined them in the new Union of South Africa. From 1961, when it became a province in the Republic of South Africa, the Cape Colony was called the Cape Province.

( Bucephala albeola ), small, rapid-flying duck of the family Anatidae, which breeds in woodland .... abandon hole

Buffleheads begin breeding at the age of two. The pale eggs, about nine in an average clutch, are laid in holes abandoned by flickers, in trees fairly near the water.

born December 9, 1886, New York, New York, U.S. .... york, new

born December 9, 1886, New York, New York, U.S.

Fish may be confined in earth ponds, concrete pools, barricaded coastal waters, or cages su....

Fish may be confined in earth ponds, concrete pools, barricaded coastal waters, or cages suspended in open water. While most fish farming is devoted to the commercial food market, many governmental agencies engage in it to stock lakes and rivers for sport fishing; there is, in addition, a steady commercial market for goldfish and other decorative fish for home aquariums. Aquaculturists also raise bait fish for both sport and commercial fishing. The young fish are bred in the controlled environment and when sufficiently mature are released into the open sea.

Mixed conifer and northern hardwood forests cover the islands; logging was once an important activity. Wildlife includes wh....

Other relics of the islands' history can be seen in late-19th-century brownstone quarries on three islands and at the Manitou Island fish camp, where commercial fishermen built temporary housing near fishing sites. The islands can be reached in summer by private boat or kayak, excursion boats and shuttles from Bayfield, or a car ferry from Bayfield to Madeline Island. APA style: Apostle Islands National Lakeshore. style: "Apostle Islands National Lakeshore."

The flow of currents in the Antarctic is complex. Water ....

Water cooled by the coastal ice masses of the Antarctic continent sinks and flows northward along the ocean bottom and is replaced at the surface by an equal volume of warmer water flowing south from the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Animals on the sea bottom of the near-shore zone include the sessile hydrozoans, corals, sponges, and bryozoans, as well as the foraging, crablike sea spiders and isopods, the annelid worm polychaete, echinoids, starfish, and a variety of crustaceans and mollusks. At sea bottom there are also eelpouts, sea snails, rat-tailed fishes, and codlike fishes. Many species of deep-sea fish are known south of the Antarctic Convergence, but only three, a barracuda and two lantern fishes, seem to be confined to this zone.

The river was traditionally known to the Western world from Greek and Roman times as the Oxus and was ....

The precipitation falls mainly as snow during the winter and helps feed the glaciers in the source areas of the Amu Darya, at the highest altitudes in the Pamirs and the Hindu Kush, where temperatures average below freezing in winter and annual precipitation may exceed 40 inches (1,015 mm). In the lower reaches of the Amu Darya, mean annual precipitation is less than 4 inches (100 mm), with mean July temperatures above 77 F (25 C) and mean January temperatures ranging between 32 F and 50 F (0 C and 10 C). The river's two principal sources, the Vakhsh River and the Panj River, whose tributaries include the Pamir, follow a westerly course. The Amu Darya's flow increases from March to May, when snow melts on the plains and rainfall increases, and the flow is further augmented in summer as the ice and snow of the mountain ranges melt. The river carries the name Amu Darya only below the confluence of the Panj with the Vakhsh. The Amu Darya loses much of its water in this region t! o irrigation, evaporation, and seepage. However, the Soviet government began diverting massive amounts of water from the river beginning in the 1950s to irrigate cotton and other crops grown in the river's lower basin. The diversion of water from the Amu Darya for irrigation decreased the amount of water entering the Aral Sea, which consequently began shrinking. Surface runoff has transported these salts into surface waters and increased the salinity of the Amu Darya. Lakes and bogs dried up in the former Amu Darya delta, now far from the sea's shores, and the wetlands fed by the river shrank to only a tiny percentage of their former size. The depleted and polluted waters of the lower Amu Darya and its former delta, once rich with wildlife, are now nearly devoid of fish and birds.

The almond tree, growing somewhat larger than the peach and living longer, is strikingly beautiful when in flower. The gro....

The almond tree, growing somewhat larger than the peach and living longer, is strikingly beautiful when in flower. Sweet almonds mature only occasionally in climates like that of southern England. The Old World almond cultivation was characterized by small plantings mainly for family use; trees interplanted with other crops; variability in age, condition, and bearing capacity of individual trees; and hand labour, often with crude implements. Bitter almonds, as inedible as peach kernels, contain about 50 percent of a fixed oil that also occurs in the sweet almond, together with an enzyme called emulsin, which in the presence of water yields glucose, prussic (hydrocyanic) acid, and the essential oil of bitter almonds called benzaldehyde. When the prussic acid has been removed, the oil of bitter almonds is used in the manufacture of flavouring extracts for foods and liqueurs.